http://www.vernal.com/jan22/fr.wolves.TXT.html
Got to put that link in for ithaca.
Wolves'A Biology Report
January 22, 2003
by Nancy Bostick-Ebbert 3rd in a 4-part series Much has been written about the reintroduction of the wolf into the ecosystems of pristine Idaho wilderness areas as well as Yellowstone National Park. Eloquent quotes from ranchers, hunters and conservationists have graced the pages of newspapers throughout the U.S. and highlighted the philosophical chasm between those who do not want to see wolves returned to native habitat and those who feel that no wilderness is complete without them.
Journalists, sensing the controversial nature of wolf reintroduction, have focused a great deal of attention on the social, economic and political aspects of wolf reintroduction or recolonization, but have made relatively few attempts to simply disseminate information about the biology of this animal. This article is for those who wish to learn more.
The Basics The gray wolf (Canis lupus) is the largest member of the dog family in North America. Weighing from 80 - 120 lbs., they average 5 - 6 feet in length from head to tail. Their colors include gray, tan, brown, black and white with eyes that range from yellow and green to a deep golden brown. The red wolf (Canis rufus) is a much smaller animal with an average length of 3 - 4 feet and weights between 40 - 80 lbs. The colors of the red wolf vary from reddish brown to black and gray.
The Communal Nature of Wolves A highly intelligent species of animals, wolves are also known for their communal nature. These animals live, travel and hunt in packs of four to seven adults on average. The pack leaders consist of one male and one female which are known as the alpha wolves, or dominant pair. The alpha female and male are responsible for leading the subordinate wolves in hunting and tracking prey, choosing den sites and establishing home territory. Within a pack, the only wolves which reproduce are the alpha pair or pack leaders. All of these behaviors clearly show the importance of hierarchy in pack dynamics. The alpha male and female usually mate in January or February and give birth in the spring with a gestation period of about 65 days. Average litter size is six although this number can be as low as one pup and as high as ten. Biologists have determined that on average only two of five off-spring live to the age ten months and only one of these will live to the age of dispersal; the time when it will leave the pack for good to find a mate and establish a territory of its own. Like their domestic counterparts, pups are born with their eyes closed and will usually weigh about one pound. Their eyes open at around two weeks of age and are blue in color. Within a week of opening their eyes, puppies will begin walking and exploring the den. At a very early age, the puppies will begin play fighting with each other. The mock attacks are instinctive and simulate the skills adult wolves exhibit when hunting. Biologists also believe that this behavior establishes hierarchies that will help determine alpha and omega status when the pups are mature.
Wolf puppies grow fast and within two months will weigh about 20 lbs.; adult size will be reached by the time they are about one year old. All adults within a pack share parenting responsibilities which range from protection to feeding. Beginning when the pups are about four weeks old, the adults will regurgitate partially digested food for them until they are old enough to begin hunting with the pack.
Pups will remain with their parents throughout the first year of their life. When they are two years old, their parents will usually have another litter'the young adults can remain as pack members or begin spending periods of time on their own. This is the age of dispersal when most will leave to find mates and their own territory.After reaching maturity, most adults have fairly high rates of survival with "old age" being about seven years'16 years seems to be the maximum life span.
Wolves As Hunters The primary prey of wolves is comprised of ungulates. Depending on where they are located the prey may include caribou, bison, deer, bighorn sheep, musk oxen, elk and moose. Like most predators, wolves will also eat smaller animals including snowshoe hares, beaver, opossums, rabbits and rodents. Although some wolves will prey on livestock, wild ungulates remain, by far, the preferred prey. It is well-established that wolves tend to eliminate the old, sick and genetically inferior animals. (Pimlott et al. 1969) Part of this is due, no doubt, to the fact that wolves are what is known as "coursing" hunters. This means that they tend to chase their prey until they find a weak animal which they will then take down. Other predators are mostly opportunistic and will take animals without regard to their condition.
As pack hunters, wolves hunt cooperatively and frequently. All will assist in locating prey. Larger prey animals such as moose, caribou and elk will often stand their ground. When this occurs, the wolves are very cautious in their approach and will often abandon their pursuit. If the prey animal does flee, the pack will give chase although most healthy ungulates are fast enough to outrun a pack of wolves. Contrary to popular belief wolves rarely attempt to "hamstring" their prey'to do so would too often result in serious or fatal injury. Instead, wolves tend to concentrate their attack on the neck, shoulders and sides instead.
Wolf populations are also tied closely to the prey base and will increase or decrease very quickly according to prey availability. Communication Methods of communication among wolves range from the well-known phenomena of howling to facial expressions and body postures. Scent marking serves to leave messages which include a way to record pack trails in addition to establishing territorial boundaries. It is thought that howling can be used as a greeting, a rallying cry to gather the pack and as a means to warn other wolves away from their territory. Habitat The selection of habitat by wolves is complex and not yet completely understood. Wolves tend to locate in areas that have an adequate prey base and a minimum of human interference. Year-round access to fresh water especially during denning is thought to be an important factor according to information gleaned by researcher L.D. Mech in the 1970s. Recent studies have also indicated that wolves tend to avoid high elevations and rugged terrain'this is thought to be related to the lack of year-round prey availability.
According to the recent USU report, some of the critical factors as to habitat suitability include: adequate prey, low road density, year-round access to water, appropriate elevation, and appropriate topography.
Conclusion Regardless of where one stands in the ongoing debate about wolves, whether pro or con, factual information is crucial in public discourse. It is in learning more about these animals that one can begin separating fact from fiction, truth from myth'enabling all of us to form credible opinions that have a basis in science rather than emotion.
Got to put that link in for ithaca.
Wolves'A Biology Report
January 22, 2003
by Nancy Bostick-Ebbert 3rd in a 4-part series Much has been written about the reintroduction of the wolf into the ecosystems of pristine Idaho wilderness areas as well as Yellowstone National Park. Eloquent quotes from ranchers, hunters and conservationists have graced the pages of newspapers throughout the U.S. and highlighted the philosophical chasm between those who do not want to see wolves returned to native habitat and those who feel that no wilderness is complete without them.
Journalists, sensing the controversial nature of wolf reintroduction, have focused a great deal of attention on the social, economic and political aspects of wolf reintroduction or recolonization, but have made relatively few attempts to simply disseminate information about the biology of this animal. This article is for those who wish to learn more.
The Basics The gray wolf (Canis lupus) is the largest member of the dog family in North America. Weighing from 80 - 120 lbs., they average 5 - 6 feet in length from head to tail. Their colors include gray, tan, brown, black and white with eyes that range from yellow and green to a deep golden brown. The red wolf (Canis rufus) is a much smaller animal with an average length of 3 - 4 feet and weights between 40 - 80 lbs. The colors of the red wolf vary from reddish brown to black and gray.
The Communal Nature of Wolves A highly intelligent species of animals, wolves are also known for their communal nature. These animals live, travel and hunt in packs of four to seven adults on average. The pack leaders consist of one male and one female which are known as the alpha wolves, or dominant pair. The alpha female and male are responsible for leading the subordinate wolves in hunting and tracking prey, choosing den sites and establishing home territory. Within a pack, the only wolves which reproduce are the alpha pair or pack leaders. All of these behaviors clearly show the importance of hierarchy in pack dynamics. The alpha male and female usually mate in January or February and give birth in the spring with a gestation period of about 65 days. Average litter size is six although this number can be as low as one pup and as high as ten. Biologists have determined that on average only two of five off-spring live to the age ten months and only one of these will live to the age of dispersal; the time when it will leave the pack for good to find a mate and establish a territory of its own. Like their domestic counterparts, pups are born with their eyes closed and will usually weigh about one pound. Their eyes open at around two weeks of age and are blue in color. Within a week of opening their eyes, puppies will begin walking and exploring the den. At a very early age, the puppies will begin play fighting with each other. The mock attacks are instinctive and simulate the skills adult wolves exhibit when hunting. Biologists also believe that this behavior establishes hierarchies that will help determine alpha and omega status when the pups are mature.
Wolf puppies grow fast and within two months will weigh about 20 lbs.; adult size will be reached by the time they are about one year old. All adults within a pack share parenting responsibilities which range from protection to feeding. Beginning when the pups are about four weeks old, the adults will regurgitate partially digested food for them until they are old enough to begin hunting with the pack.
Pups will remain with their parents throughout the first year of their life. When they are two years old, their parents will usually have another litter'the young adults can remain as pack members or begin spending periods of time on their own. This is the age of dispersal when most will leave to find mates and their own territory.After reaching maturity, most adults have fairly high rates of survival with "old age" being about seven years'16 years seems to be the maximum life span.
Wolves As Hunters The primary prey of wolves is comprised of ungulates. Depending on where they are located the prey may include caribou, bison, deer, bighorn sheep, musk oxen, elk and moose. Like most predators, wolves will also eat smaller animals including snowshoe hares, beaver, opossums, rabbits and rodents. Although some wolves will prey on livestock, wild ungulates remain, by far, the preferred prey. It is well-established that wolves tend to eliminate the old, sick and genetically inferior animals. (Pimlott et al. 1969) Part of this is due, no doubt, to the fact that wolves are what is known as "coursing" hunters. This means that they tend to chase their prey until they find a weak animal which they will then take down. Other predators are mostly opportunistic and will take animals without regard to their condition.
As pack hunters, wolves hunt cooperatively and frequently. All will assist in locating prey. Larger prey animals such as moose, caribou and elk will often stand their ground. When this occurs, the wolves are very cautious in their approach and will often abandon their pursuit. If the prey animal does flee, the pack will give chase although most healthy ungulates are fast enough to outrun a pack of wolves. Contrary to popular belief wolves rarely attempt to "hamstring" their prey'to do so would too often result in serious or fatal injury. Instead, wolves tend to concentrate their attack on the neck, shoulders and sides instead.
Wolf populations are also tied closely to the prey base and will increase or decrease very quickly according to prey availability. Communication Methods of communication among wolves range from the well-known phenomena of howling to facial expressions and body postures. Scent marking serves to leave messages which include a way to record pack trails in addition to establishing territorial boundaries. It is thought that howling can be used as a greeting, a rallying cry to gather the pack and as a means to warn other wolves away from their territory. Habitat The selection of habitat by wolves is complex and not yet completely understood. Wolves tend to locate in areas that have an adequate prey base and a minimum of human interference. Year-round access to fresh water especially during denning is thought to be an important factor according to information gleaned by researcher L.D. Mech in the 1970s. Recent studies have also indicated that wolves tend to avoid high elevations and rugged terrain'this is thought to be related to the lack of year-round prey availability.
According to the recent USU report, some of the critical factors as to habitat suitability include: adequate prey, low road density, year-round access to water, appropriate elevation, and appropriate topography.
Conclusion Regardless of where one stands in the ongoing debate about wolves, whether pro or con, factual information is crucial in public discourse. It is in learning more about these animals that one can begin separating fact from fiction, truth from myth'enabling all of us to form credible opinions that have a basis in science rather than emotion.
